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Tuataras and Lizards Adams and Cooper muscle relaxant metaxalone side effects discount tegretol 200mg amex, 1988; Alberts muscle relaxant starting with b buy tegretol cheap, 1992; Auffenberg muscle relaxant 771 generic tegretol 200 mg visa, 1981; Bull et al spasms right side of stomach order tegretol 400mg amex. Chapter 10 Foraging Ecology and Diets Chapter Outline Foraging Modes Detecting, Capturing, and Eating Prey Prey Detection Visual Prey Detection Chemosensory Prey Detection Auditory Prey Detection Thermal Prey Detection Tactile Prey Detection Prey Capture and Ingestion Biting and Grasping 291 295 295 295 296 298 299 299 300 302 Constriction Injected Venoms Projectile Tongues Filter Feeding Inertial Suction Feeding Prey Types and Sizes Eating Other Animals Herbivory Ontogeny of Diets Evolution of Diets 303 303 305 307 308 309 309 311 313 315 Amphibians and reptiles are often the most abundant terrestrial vertebrates at any locality in the warmer parts of the world, and like other animals, they must eat other organisms to survive. Given their high species diversity and abundance, their impact on other animal species-and in some instances, plants-is not trivial. Although some particularly interesting exceptions exist, caecilians generally feed on earthworms and other invertebrates, frogs and salamanders feed almost exclusively on insects (at least as adults), crocodylians feed largely on other vertebrates, turtles feed on a combination of plants and animals, and squamates feed largely on invertebrates or vertebrates, although all members of two lizard taxa (Iguanidae and Leiolepidinae) are herbivorous. In addition, a large number of small-bodied liolaemid lizards in southern South America are herbivorous. In nature, amphibians and reptiles have a huge diversity of food items available, yet no amphibian or reptile eats all available items. Instead, an individual eats a particular subset of available food, and diets of individuals usually reflect diets of a species in a particular habitat. The preferred food can range from a variety of appropriate-sized arthropods or insects to just one prey type, such as termites. How much of the variation in diets that we see among species living in the same environment is historical? Diets of amphibians and reptiles are complex and influenced by many abiotic and biotic variables. As a result, methods, analyses, and interpretations of diet studies vary considerably, and no single "best" protocol exists. These foraging modes were originally defined on the basis of behaviors used to locate and capture prey. Theoretically, sit-and-wait foragers invest little time and energy searching for prey. They typically remain stationary and attack mobile prey that move within their field of vision. Active foragers move about through the environment in search of prey, expending considerable energy in the search phase but little energy in the capture phase of foraging. Although many species of amphibians and reptiles can easily be placed into one of these two categories, some are herbivorous, and, as a consequence, they do not pursue prey in the classical sense. Whether or not a "continuum" exists between sit-and-wait and wide foraging remains controversial. Early studies indicated that such a continuum should exist based on theoretical grounds. Our theory on foraging is based heavily on the idea that foraging behavior is evolutionarily plastic and responds to differences in prey abundance and behavior. Foraging behavior was assumed to be driven in each species by a combination of competition and energetic aspects impinging upon a particular species. This interpretation was made and widely accepted in spite of the observation that specific foraging modes were shared by closely related species and groups of species. One prediction of this hypothesis is that a continuum of foraging modes should exist. The introduction of modern comparative methods that apply evolutionary analyses to behavioral and ecological phenomena provides a different perspective. For example, phrynosomatid lizards are sit-and-wait foragers, whereas teiid lizards are active foragers. Mapping foraging modes on a phylogeny reveals that sit-and-wait foraging is shared between the earliest branching squamate clades (Gekkota) and the other lepidosaurian clade, the sphenodontans or tuataras. This observation argues for the evolution of sitand-wait foraging in the distant past and the origin of active foraging much later during the evolution of squamates. The observation further suggests that active foraging in lizards likely arose as a single evolutionary event. Evolution of sit-and-wait foraging in iguanians and some smaller clades arose independently even later. The bimodality of sit-and-wait versus active foraging appears obvious within single assemblages of species. A synthesis of lizard foraging data by Gad Perry shows that bimodality is evident and no continuum of foraging modes is detectable when the confounding effects of phylogeny are removed. Phylogenetic analyses of other behaviors related to foraging also indicate that much of the variation has its origins deep within phylogeny rather than representing repeated adaptive responses to prey types, distribution, or abundance.
Lecours and colleagues (1987a muscle relaxant rocuronium order generic tegretol online, 1987b yellow round muscle relaxant pill order genuine tegretol, 1988) studied the relationship between brain damage and schooling with regards to aphasic impairments of language spasms below breastbone order 100 mg tegretol free shipping. On the basis of their findings infantile spasms 8 month old order 100mg tegretol otc, the authors concluded that: (a) there was a greater righthemisphere language involvement in illiterates than in the welleducated patients; and (b) left stroke schooleducated patients seemed to be "sicker," as it were, than their illiterate counterparts, that is: (i) the classical symptoms of aphasia (suppression stereotype, jargon aphasia) were more apparent among left stroke schooled literates than among left stroke illiterates; and (ii) auditory comprehension was more frequently impaired among the left stroke literate patients. Lecours and colleagues (1987b) also studied the influence of education on unilateral neglect syndrome. They analyzed a large sample of righthanded unilingual braindamaged individuals: illiterates (left stroke and right stroke) and schooled literates (left stroke and right stroke). Evidence of a unilateral neglect syndrome was found in both left- and right-brain-damaged schooled literates and illiterates. Their results provided no indication that spatial attention was globally stronger depending on the side of the lesion or the educational level of the patients. Rosselli, Vergara, and Ardila (1985), however, reported a higher frequency of right hemispatial neglect in loweducated patients. In summary, studies of braindamaged illiterates, when compared with braindamaged literates, have indicated that: (a) literacy does not change the dominance of the left hemisphere for language; illiterates as well as literates present aphasia most often after left brain damage, and not after right brain damage; and (b) the right hemisphere appears to have a disproportionate involvement in language in illiterates when compared with literate individuals: left-damaged literates present a larger number of errors in aphasia tests than left-damaged illiterates (Lecours et al. Aphasia in deaf-signers Aphasia Handbook 164 Aphasia for sign language is of very special interest for understanding the brain organization of language. In general, it has been observed that sign language, as well as phonological language, is represented in the left hemisphere for most people. Thus, in deaf-signers, aphasia is associated with left hemisphere lesions, whereas lesions in the right hemisphere result in visuospatial disturbances (Poizner, Klima & Bellugi, 1981; Vaid, Bellugi & Poizner, 1989), as it is also observed in hearing individuals. After reviewing the available literature, Corina (1998) concluded that there is ample evidence for left hemisphere mediation of sign language in deaf individuals. Furthermore, aphasia for sign language, observed in cases of left hemisphere damage, is not attributable to more general problems in motor or symbolic processing. Functional neuroimaging studies, however, show a more extended bilateral brain activity in deaf signers than in normally hearing individuals during speaking, suggesting the participation of more spatially and visually-based abilities in signing. Saito, Otsuki, and Ueno (2007) reported a deaf signer who showed substantial sign language aphasia with severe impairment in word production due to a left occipital lesion, suggesting that sign language uses a visuospatial modality through visual information. Episodic memory impairments as well as defects in the production and comprehension of fingerspelling and grammatically complex sentences were found. She also presented signs of anomia as well as an ideomotor apraxia and visual-spatial dysfunction. The authors suggest that, in many respects, the cognitive disorders in this patient mirror those of patients with dementia who had normally learned to speak. Aphasia across different languages Some attempts to compare aphasia across different languages are currently available. For instance, Menn and Obler (1990) published a collection of papers about agrammatism in aphasia across different languages. Paradis (2001) compared the aphasia manifestation in some selected languages; as anticipated, similarities were found, but so were differences. Bates and Wulfeck worked for years comparing aphasia across languages, especially with regard to grammatical impairments. However, the number of languages included in these cross-linguistic comparisons were limited; furthermore, they were mostly western Indo-European languages. For instance, there is not a single published case of aphasia in an Amerindian language, regardless that Amerindian languages represent close to 50% of the languages spoken worldwide. There has been special interest in understanding brain organization of language through the analysis of tonal languages (tone is the use of pitch in language to distinguish lexical or grammatical meaning; Figure 9. Chinese (Mandarin) represents the largest currently spoken tonal language (about 845 million of speakers). It has been observed that left-damaged non-fluent aphasic Aphasia Handbook 165 speakers of Chinese experience a tonal production deficit (Packard, 1986). It has been suggested that in tonal languages, lexical specification of tone contour information results in left hemisphere lateralization of that information, thus making the tonal phonemes vulnerable to left hemisphere damage.
Females attack males infantile spasms 8 months order tegretol 200mg on line, males carrying tadpoles spasms left side abdomen cheap tegretol online master card, and other females spasms medicine purchase tegretol 200mg online, but most aggression is directed toward other females spasms around heart purchase tegretol 200 mg visa. Males are light brown until they begin to call; while calling, they become uniform black, losing their stripes and other markings. Two adjacent calling males, both black, may engage in grappling fights; the loser immediately becomes light brown. Females, but not males, are territorial; males use color to court females from a distance, thereby avoiding attacks from nonreceptive females. A receptive female signals her reproductive readiness by leaving her territory and approaching a calling male. The blue color is intense during the breeding season but fades during the nonbreeding season, indicating that the color is hormonally mediated. Presumably the color is used as a signal indicating territorial boundaries to intruding males. Two species of frogs are now known to produce and hear ultrasonic vocal signals, defined generally as signals greater than 20 kHz. The two species of frogs live in noisy habitats but are not closely related and have different mechanisms for producing these sounds. Male Bornean hylid frogs, Huia cavitympanum, emit ultrasonic acoustic signals exclusively, whereas the Chinese ranid, Odorrana tormota, produces both low-frequency and ultrasonic calls. Odorrana tormota breeds along noisy, fast-moving steams, making location of mates difficult. Frogs often use tactile cues to distinguish gender, particularly in explosively breeding species. The larger body of a gravid female provides the tactile cue that identifies her gender and reproductive state to a male. In prolonged-breeding species, a female approaches a calling male, and, typically, the male continues to call until touched or nudged by the female. In the hylid Hypsiboas rosenbergi, each male constructs a basin of mud or sand at the edge of a small forest stream and calls from a platform in the basin. Only after the female touches the male does he cease calling and initiate amplexus. Frogs in the family Mantellidae have a wide variety of femoral glands on the undersides of their thighs. Although the structure of the glands has been studied by Miguel Vences and Frank Glaw and their colleagues, the function of the glands remains largely unknown. The left row shows species in which the glands are typically composed of single granules, each of which is a separate secretory unit. The right row shows species in which the gland is composed of granules arranged in a circle; each granule opens into a central external depression. A, Mantella aurantiaca; B, Guibemantis liber; C, Guibemantis bicalcaratus; D, Gephyromantis pseudoasper; E, Gephyromantis cornutus; F, Gephyromantis luteus; G, Gephyromantis malagasius; H, Mantidactylus cf. Chapter 9 Communication and Social Behavior 265 genera of frogs in unrelated ranoid clades, Indirana, Petropedetes, and Nyctibatrachus, also have femoral glands, indicating that these glands may have evolved independently. Frogs in the latter genus have reproductive behavior similar to many mantellids, which includes the lack of amplexus and positioning of the male and female on vertical leaves. In Nyctibatrachus humayuni, males vocalize from leaves overhanging small streams in evergreen forest in the Western Ghats of India. The female deposits eggs on the exact spot from which the male had been vocalizing. If a female deposits a second group of eggs, they are placed on the spot where the male had moved to vocalize. After depositing eggs, the female departs and the male moves over the eggs and fertilizes them. Thus, in this species, the male chooses the deposition site, and fertilization is 100% successful. The male continues to call from the same location and may mate with additional females who deposit their eggs on the same leaf or a nearby leaf. The glands of the mostly diurnal, terrestrial species of mantellids are composed of clusters of enlarged granular glands that have separate ducts.
Characteristics: In the skull spasms after stent removal cheap tegretol 100 mg without a prescription, the lacrimal foramen is not enlarged muscle relaxants quizlet buy cheap tegretol 200 mg, the jugal and squamosal are not in broad contact muscle relaxer 800 mg order 100mg tegretol with amex, the parietal foramen perforates the frontoparietal suture spasms face purchase tegretol canada, and palatine and pterygoid teeth are present. They are principally diurnal predators, frequently preying upon other lizards, although arthropods form a significant component of their diet. Crotaphytus select a rock or other vantage point from which they can search for prey. Gambelia typically sit stationary in shrubs ambushing prey that approach the shrub. Crotaphytids produce clutches of modest size, averaging 38 eggs per female; clutch size increases as female size and age increase. Polychrotidae Bush Anoles Classification: Squamata; Toxicofera; Iguania; Pleurodonta; Polychrotidae. Distribution: From Hondurus through most of tropical and subtropical South America. They spend most of their time in the canopy of vegetation and can be very difficult to observe during the day because of their cryptic morphology and coloration, and because they often move to the opposite side of a branch when approached. The tail is prehensile, but not to nearly the degree as found in Old World chameleons. At night, they sleep on the end of branches, often with the tail hanging down, and can be observed easily with lights. Other species of Polychrus produce smaller clutches but also appear to be seasonal breeders. Dactyloidae True Anoles Classification: Squamata; Toxicofera; Iguania; Pleurodonta; Dactyloidae. Distribution: Southeastern United States through Central America and the West Indies to tropical and subtropical South America. Characteristics: the lacrimal foramen in the skull is not enlarged, the jugal and squamosal are not in broad contact, the parietal foramen usually perforates the frontoparietal suture (occasionally the parietal), palatine teeth are present or absent, and pterygoid teeth are present. Anolis (anoles) has about 380 species and has been divided into as many as three genera (Anolis, Norops, and Dactyloa). Dactyloids are predominantly arboreal species as indicated by their specialized foot morphology. Anoles have a unique reproductive physiology that includes continual egg production. Only one egg is laid at a time-in a terrestrial nest-but eggs are produced in rapid succession. Oogenetic maturation, ovulation, and egg shelling occur alternately between left and right ovaries and oviducts, and under ideal conditions, a female in good condition will lay an egg every 7 to 20 days. Continuous reproduction does not typically occur in the wild because most environments are climatically cyclic; thus food availability and quality are also cyclic. Corytophanidae Casque-Head or Helmeted Lizards Classification: Squamata; Toxicofera; Iguania; Pleurodonta; Corytophanidae. Content: Three genera, Basiliscus, Corytophanes, and Laemanctus, with 4, 3, and 2 species, respectively. Characteristics: In the skull, the lacrimal foramen is not enlarged, the jugal and squamosal are in broad contact, the parietal foramen perforates the frontal (absent in Laemanctus), palatine teeth are absent, and pterygoid teeth are present. Of the three genera, species of Corytophanes and Laemanctus are strongly arboreal and rarely ascend to the ground except to lay eggs. They are capable of rapid locomotion but typically use a slow, methodical gait, reminiscent of chameleons, and although not capable of rapid color change, they are cryptically camouflaged. In contrast, basilisks (Basciliscus) are low-level forest inhabitants, foraging largely on the ground but returning to trees to escape predators and sleep or bask. Basilisks are also capable of running bipedally and noted for their ability to run across the surface of water. Egg deposition likely occurs year-round in equitable habitats and from the early to the middle of the dry season in the more climatically extreme areas. Tropiduridae Neotropical Ground Lizards Classification: Squamata; Toxicofera; Iguania; Pleurodonta; Tropiduridae. Lizards 591 Content: Eight genera, Eurolophosaurus, Microlophus, Plica, Stenocercus, Strobilurus, Tropidurus, Uracentron, and Uranoscodon, with 3, 20, 3, 61, 1, 26, 2, and 1 species, respectively. Distribution: Most of tropical and subtropical South America and the Galбpagos. Characteristics: In the skull, the lacrimal foramen is not enlarged, the jugal and squamosal are not in broad contact, the parietal foramen perforates the frontoparietal suture or is absent, palatine teeth are absent, and pterygoid teeth present except in some Stenocercus.
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