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This is evidence that their unique or nonshared experiences have made them different cholesterol and vitamin d purchase gemfibrozil 300mg mastercard. Do the contributions of genes and environment to differences in intellectual ability change over the life span You might guess that genetic influences would decrease as children accumulate learning experiences cholesterol lowering foods omega 3 purchase gemfibrozil overnight, but you would be wrong cholesterol medication vytorin side effects discount gemfibrozil 300 mg on line. Genetic endowment appears to gain rather than lose importance from infancy to adulthood as a source of individual differences in intellectual performance (McCartney vldl cholesterol definition generic 300mg gemfibrozil visa, Harris, & Bernieri, 1990; Plomin & Spinath, 2004). In a longitudinal study of identical and fraternal twins conducted by Ronald Wilson (1978, 1983), identical twins scored no more similarly than fraternal twins on a measure of infant mental development during the first year of life; thus, evidence of heritability was lacking in infancy. This may be because powerful maturational forces keep redirecting infants back to the same species-wide developmental pathway, regardless of specific genetic makeup or experiences (McCall, 1981). Identical twins even experienced more similar spurts in intellectual development than fraternal twins. Studies using the techniques of molecular genetics are beginning to identify specific genes on several chromosomes that make at least a small contribution to intelligence and that can now be studied in interaction with specific environmental factors (Posthuma & de Geus, 2006). Siblings are probably exposed to similar (shared) learning experiences when they are young. As they age, partly because of their different genetic makeups, they may seek and have different (nonshared) life experiences. They may elicit different reactions from their parents, join different peer groups, encounter different teachers, and so on. Most likely, then, stimulating environments help children realize more fully their genetically based potentials. It is critical for parents, teachers, and others concerned with optimizing development to understand that genetically influenced qualities can very often be altered. Temperament and Personality As parents know well, different babies have different personalities. In trying to describe infant personality, researchers have focused on aspects of temperament-tendencies to respond in predictable ways, such as sociability and emotional reactivity, that serve as the building blocks of later personality (see Chapter 11 for a fuller description of temperament). Behavioral genetics research indicates that genes contribute to individual differences in temperament in infancy and to not only continuity but also change in later personality (Ebstein, Benjamin, & Belmaker, 2003; Krueger, Johnson, & Kling, 2006). The corresponding correlations for fraternal twins were not much greater than zero. Think about that: a zero correlation is what you would expect if they were strangers living in different homes rather than fraternal twins who, on average, share half their genes, the same home, and often the same bedroom! Similar conclusions have been reached about the contributions of genes and environment to adult personality (Krueger, Johnson, & Kling, 2006; Loehlin et al. The same major dimensions of personality are evident in people from a variety of cultures and appear to have a genetic basis (Yamagata et al. Of all the differences among adults on major dimensions of personality, about 40% of the variation is attributable to genetic differences (Loehlin, 1985). Indeed, identical twins are about as similar in personality when they are raised apart as when they grow up in the same home (Bouchard et al. The remaining 55% of the variability in adult personalities is associated with nonshared environmental influences, ways in which experiences within or outside the family make siblings different from each other. Family environment is important in personality development but usually not because it has a standard effect on all family members that makes them alike. Parents do appear to influence their children to adopt attitudes and interests similar to their own, at least while they are living at home (Eaves et al. Shared environment also helps make adolescent siblings similar in the extent to which they engage in delinquent behavior (Rowe, 1994) and smoke, drink, and use other substances, mostly because siblings influence one another (Hopfer, Crowley, & Hewitt, 2003). Yet behavioral geneticists have discovered repeatedly that environment often plays a more important role in creating differences among family members than in creating similarities among them (Reiss, 2000; Rowe, 1994). When it comes to many personality traits, unique, nonshared environmental influences rather than shared ones, along with genes, seem to be most significant. In one study of identical twins, for example, negative parental feelings toward and harsh discipline of one identical twin were correlated with more acting out by that twin than by the twin who was treated more kindly (Asbury et al. Developmentalists have assumed for too long that parents treat all their children much the same and steer them along similar developmental paths (Harris, 1998). Increasingly, it seems more useful to ask how genetic differences and nonshared experiences, both inside and outside the home, steer brothers and sisters along different developmental paths.
Double injuries With high-energy trauma the cervical spine may be injured at more than one level cholesterol medication side effects weight gain best buy for gemfibrozil. With lesser symptoms and signs cholesterol medication diet buy 300 mg gemfibrozil overnight delivery, one can afford to wait a few days for improvement; if this does not occur cholesterol free shrimp cheap 300mg gemfibrozil visa, then anterior discectomy and interbody fusion will be needed high cholesterol foods and drinks order gemfibrozil cheap online. No treatment is required; as soon as symptoms permit, neck exercises are encouraged. The condition has been called neurapraxia of the cervical cord and is ascribed to pinching of the cord by the bony edges of the mobile spinal canal and/or local compression by infolding of the posterior longitudinal ligament or the ligamentum flavum (Thomas et al. Treatment consists of reassurance (after full neurological investigation) and graded exercises to improve strength in the neck muscles. Cervical disc herniation Acute post-traumatic disc herniation may cause severe pain radiating to one or both upper limbs, and neurological symptoms and signs ranging from mild paraesthesia to weakness, loss of a reflex and blunted sensation. Only when the brace was removed and he started flexing his neck did the x-ray show an obvious subluxation lower down (b). This mechanism has generated the imaginative term whiplash injury, which has served effectively to enhance public apprehension at its occurrence. Women are affected more often than men, perhaps because their neck muscles are more gracile. There is disagreement about the exact pathology but it has been suggested that the anterior longitudinal ligament of the spine and the capsular fibres of the facet joints are strained and in some cases the intervertebral discs may be damaged in some unspecified manner. There is no correlation between the amount of damage to the vehicle and the severity of complaints. For purposes of comparison, the severity grading system proposed by the Quebec Task Force on Whiplash-Associated Disorders is useful. Differential diagnosis the diagnosis of sprained neck is reached largely by a process of exclusion. X-rays should be carefully scrutinized to avoid missing a vertebral fracture or a mid-cervical subluxation. They do not always cause bruising of the chest, but they can produce pressure or traction injuries of the suprascapular nerve or the brachial plexus, either of which may cause symptoms resembling those of a whiplash injury. The examining doctor should be familiar with the clinical features of these conditions. Clinical features Often the victim is unaware of any abnormality immediately after the collision. Pain sometimes radiates to the shoulders or interscapular area and may be accompanied by other, more ill-defined, symptoms such as headache, dizziness, blurring of vision, paraesthesia in the arms, temporomandibular discomfort and tinnitus. X-ray examination may show straightening out of the normal cervical lordosis, a sign of muscle spasm; in other respects the appearances are usually normal. In some cases, however, there are features of longstanding intervertebral disc degeneration or degenerative changes in the uncovertebral joints; it may be that these patients suffer more, and for longer spells, than others. Simple pain-relieving measures, including analgesic medication, may be needed during the first few weeks. However, the emphasis should be on graded exercises, beginning with isometric muscle contractions and postural adjustments, then going on gradually to active movements and lastly movements against resistance. The range of movement in each direction is slowly increased without subjecting the patient to unnecessary pain. Progress and outcome the natural history of whiplash injury is reflected in the statistics appearing in the medical literature on this subject. Many people who are involved in road collisions do not seek medical attention at all; this is particularly the case in countries where medical and legal costs are not compensated. Negative prognostic indicators are increasing age, severity of symptoms at the outset, prolonged duration of symptoms and the presence of pre-existing intervertebral disc degeneration. Other factors that presage a poor outcome are a history of pre-accident psychological dysfunction, unduly frequent attendance with unrelated physical complaints, a record of unemployment and a general tendency to underachievement.
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During "Brazelton training hdl cholesterol lowering foods order discount gemfibrozil line," parents observe the test being administered and learn how to administer it themselves to elicit smiles and other heartwarming responses from their babies cholesterol test coffee before order gemfibrozil 300 mg with mastercard. Without question cholesterol foods hdl order gemfibrozil from india, breastfeeding is the most natural form of nutrition for newborns cholesterol in eggs wiki generic gemfibrozil 300 mg on-line. For a variety of reasons, breastfeeding in the United States reached an all-time low in the early 1970s, when only 1 in 4 mothers attempted to nurse their newborn infants. Since then, research has shown numerous advantages of breast milk over formula and all major health organizations (e. As a result of public awareness campaigns regarding the advantages of breastfeeding, nearly 7 in 10 mothers now attempt to nurse their newborns (Ahluwalia, Morrow, & Hsia, 2006). But only 50% are still breastfeeding after a month and less than one-third are still at it by 6 months (Wellbery, 2006). Breast milk contains several substances that protect nursing infants from infections and it has the perfect blend of nutrients for a quickly developing little person. Another bonus for mothers is faster weight loss when they breastfeed following childbirth. For premature babies, breast milk has been referred to as "more of a medicine than a food" because of its positive effects on their immune systems and weight gain (Gross-Loh, 2006, p. Women cite a number of reasons for not continuing with breastfeeding, including issues related to self (e. Young women, those from low socioeconomic backgrounds, and those with less education are less likely to breast-feed than other women (Ryan & Zhou, 2006). Being employed outside the home is also associated with lower breastfeeding rates, presumably because of the logistical problems of breastfeeding while at work (Ryan & Zhou, 2006). Interestingly, Hispanic mothers have a fairly high rate of breastfeeding until they immigrate to the United States and then the rate decreases with the amount of time in the United States (Gibson-Davis & BrooksGunn, 2006). To improve breastfeeding rates, ambivalent (and in some cases, downright negative) views of breastfeeding need to be addressed so that women view breastfeeding as the option not just an option. Identifying At-Risk Newborns A few infants will be considered at risk for either short-term or long-term problems because of genetic defects, prenatal hazards, or perinatal damage. The test has been used for more than 50 years and, despite its "lowtech" nature, is still considered a valuable diagnostic tool (Casey, McIntire, & Leveno, 2001). It yields scores of 0, 1, or 2 for each of the five factors, which are then added to yield a total score that can range from 0 to 10. Infants scoring 4 or lower are at risk-their heartbeats are sluggish or nonexistent, their muscles are limp, and their breathing is shallow and irregular, if they are breathing at all. These babies will immediately experience a different postnatal environment than the normal baby experiences because they require medical intervention in intensive care units to survive, as you will see at the end of the chapter. The survival and health of these small infants is a concern, particularly for infants who are very small (less than 1500 grams or just over 3 pounds at most). Fetal growth risk curves: Defining levels of fetal growth restriction by neonatal death risk. Higher-order multiples spend 8 times as long in the hospital as singleton infants and cost more than 6 times as much in hospital costs (Henderson et al. Respiratory difficulties are likely because premature babies have not yet produced enough surfactant, a substance that prevents the air sacs of the lungs from sticking together and therefore aids breathing. And not surprisingly, the more risk factors experienced during pregnancy, the greater the likelihood of delivering a small baby (Rosenberg, 2001).
These variations seem to be tied not to overall weight but to skeletal development cholesterol education month purchase gemfibrozil 300 mg online, particularly maturation of the pelvic bones necessary for delivering a baby (Ellison cholesterol medication zoloft order 300 mg gemfibrozil with visa, 2002) cholesterol lowering functional foods 300mg gemfibrozil visa. Research by Bruce Ellis and Judy Garber (2000) shows that family stress can also affect the timing of puberty in girls natural cholesterol lowering foods or herbs purchase gemfibrozil 300mg visa. In particular, girls who were relatively young when an unrelated male moved into the house and whose mothers and stepfathers or boyfriends had a more conflicted, stressful relationship were likely to experience early sexual maturity. However, girls from lower socioeconomic backgrounds lag several months behind their higher socioeconomic counterparts, possibly because of less adequate nutrition and health care (Dosoky & Amoudi, 1997). Truly, then, physical and sexual maturation are the products of an interaction between heredity and environment, with some environments delaying maturation and others hastening it. Psychological Implications As noted previously, there are large individual differences in the timing of physical and sexual maturation. An earlymaturing girl may develop breast buds at age 8 and reach menarche at age 10, whereas a late-developing boy may not begin to experience a growth of his penis until age 141/2 or a height spurt until age 16. Within a middle school, then, there is a wide assortment of bodies, ranging from entirely childlike to fully adultlike. What psychological effects do the many changes associated with puberty have on adolescents In many cultures, girls approaching or experiencing puberty tend to become concerned about their appearance and worry about how others will respond to them. Not surprisingly, research confirms that individual reactions to menarche vary widely, with many girls reporting a mixture of positive and negative feelings and some confusion about the process (Koff & Rierdan, 1995; Moore, 1995). Unfortunately, cultural views about menstruation are often negative, and girls internalize these negative myths about what to expect. Many also develop poor body images because they are bothered by the weight gains that typically accompany menarche (Seiffge-Krenke, 1998). But they hope to be tall, hairy, and handsome, and they may become preoccupied with their physical and athletic prowess. Whereas menarche is a memorable event for girls, boys are often unaware of some of the physical changes they are experiencing. They notice their first ejaculation, but they rarely tell anyone about it and often were not prepared for it (Stein & Reiser, 1994). Although males express a mix of positive and negative reactions to becoming sexually mature, they generally react more positively to semenarche than girls do to menarche; 62% of boys regard semenarche positively, whereas only 23% of girls view menarche positively (Seiffge-Krenke, 1998). Adolescents physically distance themselves from their parents by engaging in less body contact, especially with fathers, and they go to great lengths to avoid being seen naked by their parents (Schulz, 1991, in Seiffge-Krenke, 1998). Perhaps as a result of the barriers erected between adolescents and their parents, teens become more independent and less close to their parents (Steinberg, 1989). They are also more likely to experience conflicts with their parents, especially with their mothers-more often about minor issues such as unmade beds, late hours, and loud music than about core values. Hormone changes in early adolescence may contribute to this increased conflict with parents and to moodiness, bouts of depression, lower or more variable energy levels, and restlessness (Buchanan, Eccles, & Becker, 1992). Parents-mothers and fathers alike- can help adolescents adjust successfully to puberty by maintaining close relationships and helping adolescents accept themselves (Swarr & Richards, 1996). Overall, you should not imagine that the physical and hormonal changes of puberty cause direct and straightforward psychological changes in the individual. Instead, biological changes interact with psychological characteristics of the person and with changes in the social environment to influence how adolescence is experienced (Magnusson, 1995; Paikoff & Brooks-Gunn, 1991). Early versus Late Development If "timely" maturation has psychological implications, what is it like to be "off time"-to be an especially early or late developer
